Everything below concerns thymosin beta-4. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-06-02. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
Identity and purity are normally confirmed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The expected mass for the acetylated 28-residue peptide is close to 3108 daltons, and a mass shift indicates a modification or truncation. Peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion can resolve sequence-level questions. Counter-ion content, water content, and residual solvents are separate quality attributes that a certificate of analysis may or may not report. Aggregation is monitored by size-exclusion chromatography when relevant.
Thymosin alpha-1 is supplied as a lyophilized powder in most research settings. The solid dissolves readily in water and in common aqueous buffers, and it is typically reconstituted shortly before use. Solutions are clear and colourless at ordinary working concentrations. Because the peptide is hygroscopic, weighing and reconstitution are usually performed with minimal exposure to ambient air. Aliquots are prepared to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, and working solutions are kept cold.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Laboratory work indicates that the peptide acts on cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Reported effects include signalling through Toll-like receptors on dendritic cells, enhanced T-cell maturation, and increased natural killer cell activity. These actions are described largely from cell-culture and animal experiments, and the precise receptor-level events remain incompletely defined. Studies in humans have generally measured immune markers rather than a single defined molecular target. The resulting picture remains partly descriptive.
Clinical research has examined the peptide in chronic hepatitis B and C, as a vaccine adjuvant, and in sepsis and oncology settings. Results across trials have been mixed, and several studies were small or conducted under differing protocols. Regulatory status varies by country, and the compound is not approved in every jurisdiction where it is studied. Evidence for any single indication should be read with attention to sample size and endpoint choice.
Quality control for thymosin alpha-1 focuses on identity, purity, and potency. Identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and amino acid analysis, while purity is assessed by chromatography with limits on related substances and residual solvents. Potency assays may use cell-based immune readouts, but these are not standardized across laboratories. Regulatory status differs by jurisdiction; no product is approved in the United States for clinical use, whereas some other countries register injectable forms for specific indications.
Quantifying thymosin alpha-1 in a sample usually relies on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The peptide lacks strong chromophores, so detection often occurs at 214 nm, where the peptide backbone absorbs. Mass spectrometry provides confirmatory identification and can detect sequence variants or truncations. Immunoassays have been used in biological matrices, but they may cross-react with related fragments. For purity assessment, chromatographic peak area gives the main component percentage, while mass accuracy verifies molecular identity.
Overall evidence quality varies considerably. A large share of published reports come from single centers, rely on surrogate immunological markers, or lack adequate control groups. Systematic reviews have highlighted this heterogeneity as a barrier to pooling results. Open questions include which patients, if any, might benefit, what treatment duration is appropriate, and whether any effect is independent of standard care. The peptide is often described as an immune modulator rather than a therapy for one disease, which complicates confirmatory trial design.
Thymosin alpha 1 was identified in 1977 as a component of thymosin fraction 5, a heterogeneous preparation used in early studies of thymic function. Investigators purified the active material and determined its amino acid sequence, which enabled chemical synthesis. Work in the following decades concentrated on T-cell maturation and immune reconstitution in animals and small human cohorts. Early preparations varied in composition, so results from that period are difficult to compare with studies using defined synthetic peptide.
The peptide occurs naturally in thymic tissue and has been detected in serum and other biological fluids. Reported concentrations are low, and reliable measurement generally requires immunoassay or mass spectrometry with an enrichment step. It is released from a larger precursor, prothymosin alpha, by proteolytic cleavage, although the enzymes involved are not fully characterized. Whether circulating levels reflect thymic output specifically remains an open question.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a 28-amino-acid peptide first isolated from thymosin fraction 5, a bovine thymic extract. Its sequence begins with an acetylated serine residue and carries a high proportion of acidic residues, so the molecule has a net negative charge near neutral pH. Despite the shared name, it is unrelated in sequence to the thymosin beta family. Synthetic material prepared by solid-phase peptide synthesis is identical in sequence to the natural peptide.
Several names appear in the literature for this peptide, including thymalfasin and the abbreviation T-alpha-1. Naming conventions differ among research articles, regulatory documents, and supplier catalogs, which complicates literature searches. Both synthetic and recombinant production routes yield a peptide with the same 28-residue sequence as the thymic isolate. Because the thymosin label also covers unrelated peptides, sources should be compared by sequence rather than by name alone.
== Disease relevance == MMP-3 has been implicated in exacerbating the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) through its disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Different studies have shown that after the brain undergoes trauma and inflammation has begun, MMP production in the brain is increased. In a study conducted using MMP-3 wild type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice, MMP-3 was shown to increase BBB permeability after traumatic injury. The WT mice were shown to have lower claudin-5 and occludin levels than the KO mice after TBI. Claudin and occludin are proteins that are essential for the formation of the tight junctions between the cells of the blood-brain barrier. Tissue from uninjured WT and KO mice brains was also treated with active MMP-3. Both the WT and KO tissues showed a drop in claudin-5, occludin, and laminin-α1 (a basal lamina protein), suggesting that MMP-3 directly destroys tight junction and basal lamina proteins. MMP-3 also does damage to the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB), the functional equivalent of the blood-brain barrier, after spinal cord injury (SCI). In a similar study conducted using MMP-3 WT and KO mice, MMP-3 was shown to increase BSCB permeability, with the WT mice showing greater BSCB permeability than the KO mice after spinal cord injury. The same study also found decreased BSCB permeability when spinal cord tissues were treated with a MMP-3 inhibitor. These results suggest that the presence of MMP-3 serves to increase BSCB permeability after SCI.
== Signs and symptoms == Early symptoms are malaise and lethargy. After one to three months, patients develop shortness of breath and bone pain. Myalgias may occur because of reduced carnitine production. Other symptoms include skin changes with roughness, easy bruising, and petechiae, gum disease, loosening of teeth, poor wound healing, and emotional changes (which may appear before any physical changes). Dry mouth and dry eyes similar to Sjögren's syndrome may occur. In the late stages, jaundice, generalised edema, oliguria, neuropathy, fever, convulsions, and eventual death are frequently seen. Signs of scurvy also include hypotension, pulmonary hypertension, and an enlarged heart.
=== Invertebrate cartilage === Cartilage tissue can also be found among some arthropods such as horseshoe crabs, some mollusks such as marine snails and cephalopods, and some annelids like sabellid polychaetes.
== Bibliography == Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 428–430. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7. Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdnyakov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1966). Аналитическая химия технеция, прометия, астатина и франция (Analytical Chemistry of Technetium, Promethium, Astatine, and Francium) (in Russian). Nauka. 2013, E.R. Scerri,A tale of seven elements, Oxford University Press, Oxford, ISBN 9780195391312
== Nixon administration == The war on drugs was declared by President Richard Nixon during a special message to Congress delivered on June 17, 1971, in response to increasing rates of death from narcotics. During his announcement, Nixon mentioned fighting the war on two fronts: the supply front and the demand front. To address the supply front, Nixon requested funding to train narcotics officers internationally and proposed various legislation to disrupt manufacturers of illegal drugs. The demand front referred to enforcement and rehabilitation; Nixon proposed the creation of the Special Action Office of Drug Abuse Prevention to co-ordinate various agencies in addressing demand for illegal drugs. The mission of President Nixon and the United States government was to use the war on drugs to emphasize law enforcement, reduce the supply of illicit drugs, arresting distributors, and attempting to prove a lesson to the people of America to stop using and selling drugs. Although, this drifted towards a focus on minorities. Prisons were filled with individuals arrested for nonviolent drug offenses, and most of the prisoners were a minority in the United States. He also requested an additional $155 million for treatment and rehabilitation programs and additional funding to increase the size and technological capability of the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The first changes concerned the administration of the poor law, which was carried at parish level. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 provided for the grouping of parishes into poor law unions, each with a central workhouse and an elected board of guardians. Cumberland was divided into nine unions: Alston with Garrigill, Bootle, Brampton, Carlisle, Cockermouth, Longtown, Penrith, Whitehaven and Wigton. In the following year the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 was passed, reforming boroughs and cities in England and Wales as municipal boroughs with a uniform constitution. The corporation of the City of Carlisle was accordingly remodelled with a popularly elected council consisting of a mayor, aldermen and councillors.
=== Immunomodulatory treatments === In PBC, the liver is filled with T cells and B cells that contribute to a worsening condition. Therefore, some treatments are looking into targeting the antigens of these immune cells. The monoclonal antibody rituximab targets the CD20 antigen on the B cells, and is already used in a wide array of other rheumatologic diseases. In an open-label study, six patients that were unresponsive to UDCA had improvement in ALP levels after rituximab infusions. However, the efficacy of rituximab is still uncertain, and awaits further studies and trials. PBC can also lead to higher levels of interleukin 12 and interleukin 23. This was what motivated researches to look at the viability of ustekinumab, a monoclonal antibody targeted against interleukin 12 and 23. An experiment found though it did not significantly improve serum ALP levels. The researchers were further even criticized for placing patients at risk by allowing them to move to advanced disease stages where immunomodulatory therapies may not even be an option.
When the USSR was dissolved in 1991, Moscow remained the capital of the Russian Federation. Since then, a market economy has emerged, producing a significant increase in Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles. The city continued to grow during the 1990s and 2000s, its population rising from less than nine million to more than ten million. Scholars Mason and Nigmatullina argue that Soviet-era urban-growth controls produced controlled and sustainable metropolitan development, typified by the greenbelt built in 1935. Since then, however, low-density suburban sprawl has increased significantly, as a result of heavy demand for single-family dwellings (rather than multi-family apartments). In 1995–1997, the MKAD ring road was widened from an initial four lanes to ten lanes. In December 2002, Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo became the first Moscow Metro station to open outside the MKAD. The Third Ring Road—intermediate between the early 19th-century Garden Ring and the Soviet-era outer ring road—was completed in 2004. The greenbelt is becoming more fragmented, and satellite cities are appearing at the fringe. Summer dachas are being converted into year-round residences; with the proliferation of automobiles, the city has heavy traffic congestion. Multiple old churches and other examples of architectural heritage that were demolished during the Stalin era have been restored, such as the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. In the 2010s, Moscow's administration launched long-term projects such as the Moja Ulitsa (lit.
In the 20th century, as it spread to the United States and Western countries, spiritual elements of acupuncture that conflicted with scientific knowledge were sometimes abandoned in favor of simply tapping needles into acupuncture points.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
For instance, more public officials are brought within the scope of the directive, and EU member states are required to establish new registries of "beneficial owners" (i.e., those who ultimately own or control each company) which will impact banks. AMLD IV became effective 25 June 2015. On 24 January 2019, the European Commission sent official warnings to ten member states as part of a crackdown on lax application of money laundering regulations. The Commission sent Germany a letter of formal notice, the first step of the EU legal procedure against states. Belgium, Finland, France, Lithuania, and Portugal were sent reasoned opinions, the second step of the procedure which could lead to fines. A second round of reasoned opinions was sent to Bulgaria, Cyprus, Poland, and Slovakia. The ten countries have two months to respond or face court action. The commission had set a 26 June 2017 deadline for EU countries to apply new rules against money laundering and terrorist financing. On 13 February 2019, the Commission added Saudi Arabia, Panama, Nigeria and other jurisdictions to a blacklist of nations that pose a threat because of lax controls on terrorism financing and money laundering. This is a more expansive list than that of FATF.
== Biochemistry and effects == A wide variety of alkaloid and non-alkaloid compounds have been identified in various species of Ephedra. Of the six ephedrine-type ingredients found in ephedra (at concentrations of 0.02-3.4%), the most common are ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which are the sources of its stimulant and thermogenic effects. These compounds stimulate the brain, increase heart rate, constrict blood vessels (increasing blood pressure), and expand bronchial tubes (making breathing easier). Their thermogenic properties cause an increase in metabolism, as evidenced by an increase in body heat. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a performance-enhancing drug, despite a lack of evidence that it improves athletic performance. Ephedra may also be used as a precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in combination with aspirin and caffeine. Some studies in regulated and supervised environments have shown that ephedra is effective for marginal short-term weight loss (0.9 kg/month more than the placebo), although it was untested whether such weight loss is maintained. However, several reports have documented a number of adverse events attributable to unregulated ephedra supplements. Adverse effects of ephedra consumption may include severe skin reactions, irritability, nervousness, dizziness, trembling, headache, insomnia, profuse perspiration, dehydration, itchy scalp and skin, vomiting, and hyperthermia.
The symptoms of myasthenia gravis developed within 6 days to 16 weeks (median time 4 weeks). Their medicine-induced myasthenia gravis symptoms were often severe with 29 people developing respiratory failure that required mechanical ventilation. Other studies have reported that these checkpoint inhibitors cause respiratory failure in 45% and death in 25–40% of people with myasthenia gravis. Statins: Statins are drugs that lower blood cholesterol levels in order to reduce the risk of developing a cardiovascular disease due to atherosclerosis. In a 2019 review of 169 people who were reported to develop myasthenia gravis or had worsened myasthenia gravis symptoms while taking a statin, 138 had developed generalized myasthenia gravis, 13 had developed ocular myasthenia gravis, and 18 had worsening of their myasthenia gravis. Following discontinuance of the statin and treatment of their myasthenia gravis, 63 people fully recovered, 27 people were recovering, 19 people had not yet recovered, 5 people recovered but had ongoing symptoms, 1 individual had died, and there was no follow-up data for 54 people. Among these cases, 56% were considered to be serious. A 2024 study evaluated 593 people who had myasthenia gravis and 790,399 people who did not have myasthenia gravis after being treated with a statin. The statin-treatment caused small but statistically significant increases in numbers of exacerbations of myasthenia gravis as well as new onsets of myasthenia gravis in people without the disorder.
1993/931) Friendly Societies Act 1992 (Transitional and Consequential Provisions and Savings) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/932) Finance Act 1991, section 58, (Commencement No. 3) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/933) Legal Aid in Criminal and Care Proceedings (Costs) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/934) Housing Benefit and Community Charge Benefit (Subsidy) (No. 2) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/935) Certification Officer (Amendment of Fees) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/936) Further Education (Exclusion of Land from Transfer) (No. 2) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/937) Land Registry Trading Fund Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/938) Land Registration (Determination of Costs) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/939) Local Government Administration (Matters Subject to Investigation) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/940) Local Elections (Variation of Limits of Candidates' Election Expenses) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/941) Copyright (Application to Other Countries) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/942) Performances (Reciprocal Protection) (Convention Countries) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/943) European Communities (Definition of Treaties) (International Railway Tariffs Agreements) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/944) Insurance Companies (Accounts and Statements) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/946) Patents (Supplementary Protection Certificate for Medicinal Products) (Amendment) Rules 1993 (S.I. 1993/947) Chessington Computer Centre Trading Fund Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/948) Income Tax (Interest Relief) (Qualifying Lenders) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/949) Capital Gains Tax (Gilt-edged Securities) Order 1993 (S.I.
Edward Calvin Kendall (March 8, 1886 – May 4, 1972) was an American biochemist. In 1950, Kendall was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine along with Swiss chemist Tadeusz Reichstein and Mayo Clinic physician Philip S. Hench, for their work with the hormones of the adrenal glands. Kendall not only researched the adrenal glands, he also isolated thyroxine, a hormone of the thyroid gland and worked with the team that crystallized glutathione and identified its chemical structure. Kendall was a biochemist at the Graduate School of the Mayo Foundation at the time of the Nobel award. He received his education at Columbia University. After retiring from his job with the Mayo Foundation, Kendall joined the faculty at Princeton University, where he remained until his death in 1972. Kendall Elementary School, in Norwalk is named for him.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
Lyophilized powder is normally kept at minus twenty degrees Celsius or below, in a sealed container, desiccated and away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually refrigerated and used quickly. Repeated temperature cycling should be avoided.